Marino Institute of Education Mentors’ Experiences of Supporting Practitioners to Reflect on their Image of the Child Thesis by: Breda Dennehy Supervisor: Maja Haals Brosnan Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the award of the degree of Master in Education studies (Early Childhood Education) Date: 4th June 2019 2 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD I hereby declare that this dissertation is a presentation of my original research work. Wherever contributions of others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this clearly. This work has not been submitted previously at this or any other educational institution. The work was done under the guidance of Maja Haals Brosnan at the Marino Institute of Education, Dublin. I agree that the Library may lend or copy this dissertation upon request. Breda Dennehy 3 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 1 Acknowledgments ‘change can be frightening, because it moves us from a known territory into unchartered lands’ Rebecca Solnit I wish to acknowledge my wonderful network of family and friends. Thank you to my parents and my brother and sisters for your support and particularly my mother for believing in my ability. Thank you to my colleagues for participating in this study and for your ongoing support and guidance. Thank you also to my co coordinator and the national managers of the Better Start Quality Development Program. Thank you to Maja for supervising this study. For the loyalty and support of my close friends and social and sporting circles, Thanks! A special word of appreciation for Granny and the cavalry. A word of mention for my former colleagues and the practitioners, managers, children and the families who inspire me on my educational path. Finally, to my son Bobby, age 5 ½ yrs. I love you dearly. I can’t wait to play…. 4 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Abstract This study explored mentors’ experiences of supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child. The purpose was to evaluate the effectiveness of making this reflection central to mentoring practices for quality improvement. This study was carried out using qualitative methods of data collection. A narrative enquiry exploring the spoken and written word on the experiences of mentors’. The study employed a multiple methods approach using open response questionnaires and semi-structured focus group discussion. The participants were members of the Better Start mentoring team who are early childhood professionals (Level 8/9) and are qualified in mentoring and coaching. Literature asserts that early years practitioners continuous professional development is central to the professionalisation of ECCE services, and is a critical component in the quality of the experiences afforded to children (Sheridan et al, 2009). Our view of children is where curriculum development should begin (NCCA, 2014). The Aistear Síolta Practice Guide (2014) focuses on the rights of the child and practitioner image of the child to support reflection on the principles that underpin curriculum. This informs a practitioner’s role in supporting children to show their confidence and competence (NCCA, 2006). The Better Start Quality Development service is a mentoring service, which supports providers in implementing the quality standards of Síolta, The National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education (CECDE, 2006), and Aistear: The National Early Years Curriculum Framework (NCCA, 2009). Mentoring is an effective form of professional development in early childhood settings (Howe & Jacob, 2013). Change facilitated through mentoring is likely to be sustained (Chu, 2014; Garvey, (2004) as it considers the principles of adult learning theory (Knowles, 1970). 5 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Table of Contents Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………..3 Abstract……………………………………………..………………………4 Table of Contents…………………………………………………………...5 List of Tables……………………………………………………………….7 List of Graphs………………………………………………………………8 List of Acronymns………………………………………………………….9 List of Appendices…………………………………………………………10 Chapter One - Introduction………………………………………...……11 Mentoring to Support Quality …………………………………………..….12 Reflection on the Image of the Child………………………………………13 Structure of Dissertation……………………………………………………14 Chapter Two - Literature Review………………………………………..15 Constructions of Childhood………………………………………………...16 Quality in Early Education…………………………………………………17 Reflective Practice………………………………………………………….18 Leadership………………………………………………………………….20 Mentoring for quality……………………………………………………….21 Adult learning theory……………………………………………………….22 Better Start Mentoring……………………………………………………...23 Curriculum………………………………………………………………….26 Image of the child…………………………………………………………...25 The Role of the Adult……………………………………………………….28 Guiding reflection on the image of the child………………………………..29 Developing a positive image of the child…………………………………...31 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..32 Chapter Three - Research Methodology………………………………….34 Researcher’s Position………………………………………………………..34 Research Design…………………………………………………………….36 Research Participants………………………………………………………..39 Research Methods…………………………………………………………...40 Data analysis……………………………………………………………. 44 6 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Ethical Considerations………………………………………………………..45 Limitations…………………………………………………………………....47 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………....48 Chapter 4 - Research Findings…………………………………………......49 Participant Profile…………………………………………………………......49 Mentors’ understanding of the image of the child…………………………….52 The image of the child guides the work of the mentor……………………......53 The use of activities from the Aistear Síolta Practice Guide. …………………56 Challenges to supporting reflection on the image of the child. ………………58 The image of practitioners………………………………………………….....61 Confidence, Training and Continual Professional Development……………..62 Reflection on the image of the child leads to changes in practice. …………..65 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….67 Chapter Five - Discussion of Findings……………………………………..68 Discussion point 1……………………………………………….………….....68 Rights Based approach………………………………………………………..70 The principles of the national frameworks …………………...……………71 Discussion point 2…………………………………………………………………….72 Knowledge base of practitioners…………………………………….………..73 Motivation for the adult learner………………………………………………75 The Role of the Practitioner in Curriculum Planning………………………...75 The image of the child as a foundation for curriculum development …….….76 Discussion point 3: Individual role in leading learning…………………………77 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………80 Chapter 6 - Conclusion and Recommendations ………………………..81 Recommendations ………………………………………………………..85 Reference List……………………………………………………………….129 7 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 2 List of Tables Table 1 – Participant Profile………………………………………………………….49 8 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 3 List of Graphs Figure 1 - Mentoring experience………………………………………………………..51 Figure 2 - Analysis the ways in which the image of the child guides mentors’ work…..56 Figure 3 - Frequency of use of activities………………………………………………..57 Figure 4 - Outlines mentors’ level of confidence in supporting mentees to reflect on the image of the child………………………………………………………………………..63 Figure 5 - Training on image of the child……………………………………………….63 Figure 6 - use reflection previously in practice………………………………………….63 Figure 7 - Reflection on the image of the child leads to changes in practice which supports children’s learning……………………………………………………………………….66 9 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 4 List of Acronyms CPD – continuous professional development ECCE - Early Childhood Care and Education EYS – Early Years Specialist FP –Focus Group Participant 1-8 NCCA – National Council for Curriculum and Assessment QLP – Quality Liaison Person QP –Questionnaire Participant 1-18 10 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 5 List of Appendices Appendix A: Curriculum Foundations overview………………………………………88 Appendix B: Image of the child activities A, B, C, D and E…………………………..94 Appendix C: Final Questionnaire from Survey Monkey……………………………..105 Appendix D: Letter of Consent Focus Group and Letter of Consent Questionnaire…114 Appendix E: Coding and Analysis……………………………………………………122 Appendix F: Most commonly used strategies………………………………………...127 Appendix G: Mentors’ previous experience table……………………………………128 6 11 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 7 Chapter One - Introduction Chapter one outlines key concepts relating to the context of this study. It will define the aim and objectives of the research. The relevance and focus of this study will be outlined followed by an overview of how the dissertation is structured. This dissertation investigates mentors’ experiences of supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child as a learner. Over the past number of years as a Better Start mentor I have gained experience in supporting practitioners in early years services to develop quality practice. This has led me to understand that reflection on the image of the child plays an important role in creating sustainable changes in practice. Anecdotal evidence suggests that these observations are reflected in the experiences of other team members within Better Start as well. As of yet, there is no concrete evidence of the effectiveness of this approach and which elements of it may or may not be work. In light hereof, the purpose of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of making reflection on the image of the child central to mentoring practices for quality improvement in the early years. The study will explore what Better Start mentors’ do to support practitioners to reflect on their image of the child; why they support reflection on the image of the child in this way, and how this reflection influences practice that promotes children’s learning within early years settings. The study will also explore challenges in supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child. The Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) sector in Ireland has changed significantly in the last decade (Start Strong, 2014). Due to high demand, the quantity of provision has increased whilst the quality of provision has remained varied (O’Dwyer and McCormack, 2014; French 2007). Research on quality within the early years illustrates that practitioners’ own learning and development influences positive outcomes for children and 12 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD is pivotal to quality provision (Urban et al, 2011: Moss, 2000). Both Síolta and Aistear (NCCA, 2009) state the significance of highly skilled, knowledgeable and competent adults supporting the well-being, learning and development of children. Mentoring to Support Quality Engagement in continuous professional development (CPD) is critical to strengthening the knowledge and skills of practitioners and the quality of the experiences they afford to children (Sheridan, Samuleson & Johansson et al. 2009). Research has found that initiatives that are individualised and emphasise the transfer of knowledge directly into practice is a key factor in professional development. Mentoring programs for early childhood practitioners have been associated with quality development as research has found that mentoring is an effective form of professional development in early childhood settings (Howe and Jacobs, 2013). Mentoring is a process of change which supports the learning and development of an individual (Chu, 2014). It takes account of adult learning theory and involves an approach which enables a mentee to take responsibility for their own learning (Knowles, 1970). Better Start is a mentoring service, which supports providers in implementing the quality standards of Síolta (2006) and Aistear (NCCA, 2009). Within Better Start the mentor is called an Early Years Specialist (EYS). For the purpose of this study the Early Years Specialist is referred to as the Mentor. Their role is to work directly with early years services to build their capacity to deliver high quality experiences for children and families. The EYS works within a professional relationship that is responsive and individual to the context of the practitioner’s work. The aim of the approach is to support practitioners to engage in behaviors that extend their learning and improves reflective practice, thus leading to positive educational experiences for children and improved quality practice within early years 13 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD services. Reflection to support practitioners to develop a positive image of the child underpins this work. The image of the child refers to what a person believes about the role of children in education and society. This image includes how people think about children’s “capabilities, development, motivations, purpose and agency” Martalock, 2012, P.4). Loris Malaguzzi, founder of the Reggio Emilia approach, states that “each one of you has inside yourself an image of the child that directs you as you begin to relate to the child … (and) it is very difficult for you to act contrary to this internal image” (Malaguzzi, 1994). The principles of Reggio Emilia encourage us to think about our image of the child and the ways we interact with children and plan curriculum and learning environments (Hughes, 2009: Tarr, 2003). Reflection on the Image of the Child The work of Better Start values reflection on the image of the child and uses this approach to supports practitioners to examine the ‘principles, values and attitudes that shape their work and the work of the setting’ (NCCA, 2014, p 2). The principles of Aistear and Síolta place the child as a citizen with rights and sees them as competent, confident and at center of their learning. It is important to build a curriculum that reflects this view of children. The Better Start Quality Development process is informed by The Aistear Síolta Practice Guide (2014) (from here onwards simply referred to as the Practice Guide) which is used to develop a quality curriculum and to better support children’s learning (NCCA 2014). Under the pillar Curriculum Foundations (Overview: Appendix A.) a range of activities (Appendix B.) are provided which focus on the rights of the child and a practitioner’s image of the child. Collective discussion on these concepts can result in a shift in a practitioner’s values and beliefs (ibid.). Whilst at times intangible, this can have an impact on all within a service (NCCA, 2014: Better Start, 2019). 14 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Curriculum development which is underpinned by reflection on the image of the child (NCCA, 2014) is but one approach to quality development. The premise of this study is that supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child leads to sustainable change in quality practice. The purpose is to evaluate the effectiveness of making this reflection central to mentoring practices for quality improvement. The Participants in this study are a group of mentors’ who work within the Better Start Quality Development service. The study engages in qualitative methods, specifically questionnaires and a semi structured focus group to explore mentors’ experiences of supporting reflection on the image of the child. By its nature, any exploration concerning the image of the child relates to an individuals’ values. The study has therefore been designed as a narrative enquiry to evoke rich descriptions of the mentor’s experiences. Structure of Dissertation Chapter one describes the context and focus of the study. The aim, rational, focus and objectives are outlines followed by an overview of how the dissertation is structured. Chapter two outlines the relevant literature related to the study. This examines a range of literature which applies to the research topic and establishes the position of the study in the context of supporting children’s learning within early years services Ireland. Chapter three outlines the design of the research and methodology. The aims objectives and rational of the study are presented. The chapter provides the philosophical underpinnings and describes the position of the researcher. It provides an outline of participants and descriptions of all aspects of the design and procedures including data collection, coding and analysis methods, ethical considerations and limitations. 15 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Chapter four organises and presents the main findings of the study. Relevant quantitative and qualitative data is outlined. Following coding, analysis and interpretation of the key findings have been presented through identified themes. These findings together with related literature will inform the discussion. Chapter five presents the discussion of findings. The findings are framed within the context of the research questions and outlined in three key areas of discussion. Together with the relevant literature, the researchers understanding of the findings are presented. This discussion reflects the practical and theoretical implications of the study. Chapter Six presents a summary of the insight gained through this research. Concluding statements based off the findings, analysis and interpretation of the study are outlined and further. These conclusions have been applied to form a set of actionable recommendations for policy, practice and research. 8 9 10 11 16 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 12 Chapter Two - Literature Review This chapter sets out the body of literature relating to the work of mentors’ in supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child within the Better Start Quality development process. The context of the study is described through an exploration of the role of reflective practice, leadership and adult learning theory within mentoring processes which support quality development in Early Childhood Education. Key concepts and research relating to reflection on the image of the child and its impact on curriculum as well the role of the Practitioner in supporting children’s learning presented. Constructions of Childhood The image of the child relates to the role of children and an individual’s concept of childhood (Mayall, 1996). Childhood may be defined as “a life period during which a human being is regarded as a child, and the cultural, social and economic characteristics of that period’ (Frones cited in Waller, 2005, P.148). Children experience different childhoods depending on where they are from geographically, socially, and on their race and gender (Penn cited in Waller, 2005). A contemporary view acknowledges that childhood is not fixed or universal (Waller, 2005). There are multiple perspectives of childhood, and the work of Mayall states that ‘Children’s lives are lived through childhoods constructed for them by adult understandings of childhood or what they should be’ (Mayall, 1996, p 1) Our understanding of how children learn is informed by our particular view of children. Contemporary views of childhood place emphasis on children as active participants and having agency and power. The UN convention on the rights of the child (1989) created a climate for listening to the views of children. The child is seen as competent and complete 17 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD as themselves (Malaguzzi, 1993) and should be viewed as a young citizen. Learning and development takes place as part of social and cultural processes (Rogoff ,1990) Our understanding of how children learn is informed by our particular view of children. One theoretical model for the study of childhood applies a developmental approach. This modernist theory includes the work of Piaget who outlined clearly defined stages of cognitive growth (Kellet, Robinson and Burr, 2009; Waller, 2005). Whilst somewhat criticised his work emphasised the active role of the child in his or her own cognitive learning. Vygotsky stressed the role of children in their own learning however also accentuating the role of a knowledgeable other to support learning (1978). This work was further developed my modern theorists such as Rogoff, (1990), Bruner (1966) and Lave and Wenger (1999). A sociocultural understanding of learning sees the child embedded in the context of social relationships. The child participating in multiple contexts such as family and the community is recognised. MacNaughton (2003) sees the child as a cultural construction. When we describe children we are applying our own cultural biases and not what is existence in fact (Dahlberg et al, 2009) Quality in Early Education Quality early childhood education produces beneficial and lasting effects on children (Hayes 2013, Moloney 2015, French 2007). As Ireland has undergone significant change in relation to early education in the last decade, issues relating to quality have dominated debate for some time (Start Strong, 2014). Through an increase in the demand the quantity of provision has increased, whilst quality of provision within early years services is varied (O’Dwyer & McCormack, 2014; French, 2007). Research illustrates the key role of practitioners in quality provision and the influence of their learning and development on 18 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD positive outcomes for children (Urban et al., 2011, Moss, 2000). Despite this, matters such as training, qualifications and remuneration for those working in the sector impacts on the provision of high quality education for young children (Moloney, 2015). French states that high quality early years settings are those where practitioners/educators are knowledgeable on how children learn and are engaged, thoughtful and reflective in their practice (Hayes, 2013, p.171). In discussing high-quality early years practice, Hayes refers to “the quality of what is happening in early years settings every day … and the importance of creating an atmosphere of secure relationships in which children feel that they belong and are valued members of the space” (2013, p.26). In contrast, low quality can be characterised “by limited reciprocal encounters between adults and children and few opportunities for child participation” (Hayes, 2013, p.26) Quality in early childhood education is strongly associated with the quality of staff qualifications and participation in ongoing professional development (OECD 2012). A myriad of policies and initiatives have been developed, culminating in Siolta: (CECDE, 2006) and Aistear (NCCA, 2009) to enhance the quality of early childhood provision. Despite this, many practitioners are “ill-equipped” to engage with these frameworks, which Moloney describes as the “pillars of quality” in childcare in Ireland (Maloney, 2015, p.21). It is within this context, and in the knowledge that quality early childhood education produces beneficial and lasting effects on children, that the role of the Early Childhood Specialist as mentor with the Better Start National Quality Development Service is placed. Reflective Practice Spaggiari (2004) emphasises the importance of practitioners being central to their own professional practice. International research has shown that reflective practice is a key 19 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD component of professional development (Van Laere et al, 2012: Lehrer, 2013) and essential element in quality practice (Schonfeld 2015, CECDE, 2006). “Reflective practice requires that the practitioner engages in thought processes that make him/her aware, in a critical way of his/her everyday activities with a view to continuously improving and refining practice” (CECDE, 2006). Various theories have been developed which may support individual approaches to reflection. Reflection can be considered to function on three levels: surface level, pedagogical level and critical level (Hayes 2013). Critical reflection examines a practitioner’s personal and professional convictions and how these influence children directly and indirectly through their practice. This is important as some principles are below the surface of conscious reflection (Lindon, 2012). Reflective practice can happen in many forms, for example through conversations, documenting in a journal, by doing research or through the use of self-evaluation tools. Regardless of the method of reflection, Schon’s theory of reflective practice discusses it in two ways; reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. Reflection in action occurs as an event is happening. As an event is happening practitioners think to decide how to act, and then act according to the situation (Schon 1983: Schon 1987: Rouse, 2015). Reflection-on-action involves practitioners thinking about past events and how they may have handled it differently resulting in better outcomes for children (Schon, 1987). Recent research has also outlined “reflection-for-action”, which describes how practitioners recognise goals or areas for development and takes steps to achieve these goals (Rouse, 2015). “Research has shown that practitioners who engage in critical reflection of their own practice are more likely to be responsive to children’s needs, to value the child’s thinking” (LCCC, 2008. p 6) and to be more capable in bridging the gap between theory and practice (Howe & Jacobs, 2013, p 606). It involves thinking and talking about what is at the core of 20 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD an individual’s practice, so that over time reflective practitioners become clearer about their values (Lindon, 2012). This supports practitioners to create an image of children, which can then be translated into their pedagogical practice (Hughes, 2009). Leadership Reflective practice is a key component of professional practice. The Aistear Síolta Practice Guide emphasises the importance of creating a culture within an early years service, which embraces the values of reflective practice. This involves creating an inclusive and supportive professional community where time for individual and group reflection is valued (NCCA, 2014). There may be a variety of barriers to reflection, some of which may be psychological including fear of criticism or judgment, defensiveness, professional arrogance or may include generally de-motivated staff, organisational or time constraints, or a lack of knowledge or reflective supervision (Schonfeld, 2015; Lindon, 2010). A reflective culture is seen as dependent on the vision of an effective leader who “rather than focusing on the narrow and specific details of getting through the day and keeping the setting running… spend their time reflecting on, deliberating about and planning broadly around values, philosophy, policies and the need to be responsive to change” (Rodd, 2006, p22). This concept is embraced in the Practice Guide through the use of the term pedagogical leadership. Pedagogical leadership relates to the “educational role in a setting which encompasses the tasks that relate directly to supporting children’s learning and development using Aistear and Síolta” (NCCA, 2014). The Practice Guide acknowledges the challenge of being caught up in management tasks rather than leading learning, stating that leadership is about “ensuring that the whole setting embraces a consistent vision and supports quality practice” (NCCA, 2014, p.17). This enables practitioners to maintain their 21 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD continued professional development and ultimately empowers practitioners, as they support children within a quality early learning environment. Mentoring for quality The work of Better Start is responding to the need for continuous professional development (CPD) and training on quality practice and the implementation of both Aistear and Síolta. According to the Department of Children and Youth Affairs (DCYA) early childhood settings need systematic support to implement an effective curriculum programme (DCYA, 2014), research has found that in order to implement an early years curriculum commitment is required, at both a government level and from practitioners implementing it on a daily basis. Hale (1999) suggests that skills acquired through mentoring and coaching could bridge the gap between training and implementation. A mentoring approach supports trained practitioners as they continue to develop the knowledge, competencies, and skills required in early childhood settings and sees a move from the traditional method of one off instruction, replaced by the idea of lifelong learning (Parsloe & Leedham, 2009; Garvey, Stokes & Megginson, 2009; Clutterbuck, 2014). Mentoring in early childhood has been defined as ‘a reciprocal professional relationship which not only helps to improve the professional practice of new practitioners but also provides opportunities for more experienced teachers to gain fresh perspectives’ (Murphy & Thornton, 2015, p.15). Research affirms that ‘mentoring and leadership is vital in order to understand and implement’ our national curriculum frameworks (Farrell, 2016; Davies & Slattery 2010). Findings from the Aistear in Action study (NCCA & ECI, 2013) highlights what is possible in curriculum reform when practitioners have access to mentoring support. Participants were 22 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD seen to engage with the frameworks, reflect on practice and develop an emergent curriculum based on the principals of Aistear. Mentoring when implemented effectively can help to bring about change in the practice of education, and a good quality early years mentoring program can strengthen overall professional practice by developing educators’ reflective practice skills (Hayes & O’Neill 2017). Adult learning theory Mentoring is essentially about learning and development. Mentors’ must understand the learning processes for those involved and how to support change through adult learning practices. There is no single theory of learning that can be applied to adults. Historically what we have known about teaching has been based on an outdated principal that a teacher transmits knowledge to the child (Knowles, 2011, p.53). Knowles developed the term ‘Andragogy’ as a distinct theory of learning for adults, defined as ‘the art and science of helping adults learn’ (Knowles, 2011). This (1970) presents a definition of learning described as a change in behaviors, values, ideas, or beliefs, which shift as a result of an experience (Knowles et al. 2011). According to Ozuah ‘If one accepts the precepts of andragogy, then every effort should be made to move the learners gradually but firmly in the direction of autonomy and self-directedness’ (2005, p.8) Andragogy is underpinned by a set of suppositions on the nature and characteristics of adult learners (Ozuah, 2005). Ozuah outlines these as; 1) The need to know: Adults want to understand the potential benefit of new learning and want the learning experience to meet their needs. 2) The learner self-concept: The adults self-concept is autonomous and self-directing, they learn best when the subject is for their own purpose. 3) The role of experience: A learner’s prior experience are a primary source for learning. It is important the new learning connects with what they already know. 23 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 4) Readiness to learn: The adult requires a sense of readiness and needs to be involved in the planning and evaluating process 5) Orientation to learning: adults learning is related to a task or life problem. It it not centred on subjects. 6) Motivation: Adults are motivated to learn in real life context An important part of supporting practitioners during the mentoring process is facilitating each mentee to take meaning from their own individual experience as part of the change process. Transformative learning is a theory formulated by Mezirow (2009), and was developed to understand the nature of learning that changes the learner in a profound way. Transformational learning supports a mentor to introduce new learning and knowledge that builds upon existing knowledge. It has been defined as “the process of making meaning from one’s experiences” (Taylor, 1998). It involves perspective transformation, a paradigm shift, whereby interpretations and assumptions are critically examined to form new meaning (Mezirow, 2009). The transformation in perspective is achieved through the learner experiencing 1) disorienting dilemmas, 2) critical reflection, 3) rational dialogue, and 4) action. Better Start Mentoring Model The mentoring model in Better Start takes account of adult learning theories and supports the Early Years Specialist to tailor strategies with individual adult learners. The role of the Early Years Specialist as a mentor is to develop relationships in order to build the capacity of practitioners to promote quality practice. The process applies a strengths based approach, incorporating a range of strategies including observation and self-evaluation, 24 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD feedback, video and reflective dialogue, goal setting, and a range of practical supports including modelling, scaffolding and questioning to promote reflective practice. Wong and Waniganayake (2013, p170) outline essential attitudes of a mentor, including being caring, open, trustworthy; essential skills and knowledge outlined include the ability to evaluate, facilitate and communicate, along with the ability to take on roles such as being an instructor, coach and critical friend. A mentor develops a unique professional and challenging relationship to enhance knowledge, skills and abilities (Scottish Social Services Council, 2011). The mentor must understand and be able to facilitate processes, which support joint assessment, goal setting, coaching/modelling, observation and feedback in order to choose the appropriate tools and techniques to support the learning needs of individuals (Clutterbuck, 2014). The Better Start mentoring model is primarily influenced by the developmental model (Clutterbuck, 2014). It facilitates the practitioner setting the agenda, coming to their own conclusions and promotes self-reflection. Within this model, an experienced mentor will use a full range of skills as appropriate to the situation and mentee’s needs (Garvey, 2004). Clutterbuck (2008) describes four approaches to supporting a person’s learning. An effective mentor will use these respond to the need and context of the mentee. The four styles include: coaching – which is considered as a directive approach, guiding – which involves giving advice or being a role model, networking- to help learners to develop their own resourcefulness, and finally, counselling – a non-directive approach that can involve supporting mentees through listening. The Better Start model of mentoring uses a non-directive approach, which supports practitioners and services to engage at a level that meets their needs (Clutterbuck 2007). It also focuses on a strengths-based model. This identifies the strengths in the participants as motivation based on real life rather than aspirational situations (Kisthard 2002). The 25 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD approach places the person, not the problem, at the centre and works on building on individual’s strengths and skills (Kretzmann and McKnight, 1993). It allows change to begin from differing foundations allowing the change process to be adaptable for different services, practitioners or rooms. Image of the child The phrase image of the child is used by those who are influenced by the Reggio Emilia philosophy, which explicitly includes the image of the child as a basic principle. Reggio educators view the child as being competent, strong, powerful and rich in potential from the time of birth (Rinaldi, 2013) and this image of the child permeates all they do (Tarr, 2003). The principles of the Reggio approach are seen as a catalyst for thinking about early childhood education (Hughes, 2009). Malaguzzi (1994) suggests that the educator’s image of the child impacts both implicitly and explicitly on the assumptions and the choices that they make as educators, and is in fact a declaration of the educator’s ethical principles (Melia, 2018). Though people may not be consciously aware of the image they hold, everyone develops an image of the child from their experiences as part of a community and culture (Malaguzzi, 1994: Martalock, 2012: Tarr, 2003). The practitioner’s image of the child is seen as an important starting point in curriculum development (French, 2007), with Bredkamp (1993) stating that “the teacher’s role cannot be separated from the image of the child”. A positive image of the child allows practitioners to provide opportunities worthy of children’s strengths, ideas, creativity and potential (Hughes, 2009). According to Hughes (2009), in order to ensure practice is meaningful for children and relevant to both the children and practitioners own experiences, they need to ask questions such as who is the child, what is childhood and how does a child learn? 26 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Research has shown that adults often hold an image of the child that reflects their own personal experiences as learners (Harris & McCartney, 2014). This may be in contrast to the images the children hold of themselves, or the images held by their families, schools and communities (ibid.). According to Sorin (2005), when supporting young children, adults need to think about the child and reconstruct their practice accordingly. Harris and McCartney (2014) state that many educators see children as receptors of information while maintaining rigid control of children’s activities and behaviours. This leads to a challenge as the contexts for learning are restrictive and support a competent young learner. This is in contrast to an understanding of a child who is active and engaged in a curriculum, which pursues their interests and their abilities. Curriculum Curricula provided for children is informed by diverse beliefs and assumptions about children and their learning capabilities. The image adults have of children, directly relates to how they respond to children’s agendas as a basis for curriculum (Dockett, 1998). This in turn influences practice in early childhood settings (Dahlberg, Moss & Pence, 2009). A curriculum encompasses “the totality of the child’s learning and development”. Recent theory outlines principles of learning, which promote a curriculum to empower the child as a learner (French, 2007). Each child’s inherent abilities and what “children can do (rather than what they cannot do) is the starting point of a child’s education” (Ball, cited in Hayes, 2007, P7) This is important as a modern concept of childhood sees children as actively co- constructing their own lives (Waller & Schwann, 2005). Approaches to curriculum in the early years reflect polarised views which focus either on expected outcomes, on the one hand, or pedagogy and play-based approaches on 27 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD the other (Hayes, 2013). Hayes describes an approach to curriculum and pedagogy based on childrens’ current interests that meets the immediate learning needs of the child and allows practitioners to plan for future learning based on the child’s own experience, knowledge and previous learning. This concept has been described as an emergent, inquiry based curriculum (NCCA, 2014). Aistear (NCCA, 2009) is the early childhood curriculum framework for children from birth to six in Ireland. It is not prescriptive and provides information to help practitioners plan and build a curriculum, which emerges from the image of children as confident, competent, curious and creative learners (NCCA, 2014, NCCA, 2009). Aistear is intended for all adults in early childhood settings who have responsibility for nurturing children’s learning and development (NCCA, 2009). Consultative documents on the development of Aistear were premised on Malaguzzi’s understanding of the child as rich in potential, strong, powerful, competent and most of all connected to adults and other children (Malaguzzi, 1993). Within Aistear, the child is understood as an active and inquisitive young learner. It promotes learning through play and is based upon reciprocal relationships with caring and understanding adults (NCCA, 2009; French 2007). According to Hayes “Conceptions about early learning are often captured in the values and principles that are provided to introduce curricular or practice frameworks” (2013, p 50). The principles which underpin Aistear place children at the centre of their own learning and development and view them as “citizens with rights and responsibilities, free from any form of discrimination” (NCCA, 2014, p.17). It assumes a vision of children as capable of making choices and decisions (French, 2007) and as co-creators of knowledge, central to the education and care process (Hayes & O’Neill, 2017). The competence of the adult to implement curriculum is seen as critical to enabling children to become capable and masterful learners (Hayes & O’Neill, 2017). 28 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD The Role of the Adult The significant role of the adult is well documented through the Reggio Amelia approach to curriculum and learning. Malaguzzi outlines the role of the teacher as complex, multifaceted and responsive to the needs of children. The learning needs of the child should be complimented by the role of the adult who serves as partner, resource and guide. As described, the image of the child is where teaching should begin (Malaguzzi 1994) with Edwards further promoting the notion of “an idealized pair of images: teacher and child”. Edwards poses the question “what kind of individuals are needed by our children?” (2012). Despite the exceptional pace and enormous capacity of children to develop skills, knowledge and understanding in their early years, Fisher (2013) claims “it seems that education can inhibit some of the most prominent characteristics of a competent young learner”. This emphasises the importance of practitioners reflecting on and reviewing their role in the early childhood curriculum. Pedagogy in early years practice relates to the role of a skilful adult in nurturing children’s learning. Pedagogy suggests a theoretically informed practice that encompasses the many processes involved in childrens’ learning and adults creating learning opportunities and environments that engage, challenge and interest young children (Hayes, 2013). Sorin recognises the role of the adult in early childhood curricula (Sorin and Galloway, 2005) and challenges practitioners to critically reflect on how different constructs affect their own practice, encouraging them to examine their views and actions toward young children. Sorin (2003) describes ten constructs of childhood proposing that certain dominant images of childhood present as problematic, “particularly in terms of power relationships, agency for the child and how they may constrain the possibilities in early childhood curriculum” (Woodrow, 1999, p.7). 29 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Constructs of childhood proposed by Sorin include the innocent child being protected from fear or anxiety with the adult “knowing better” and retaining the power within the setting. Within the early childhood setting this may be identified through a learning environment designed to protect a child from harm and “positions children as incompetent, vulnerable and dependent: a blank slate ready to be moulded by adults” (Sorin, 2005, p 14). In this environment the child is prevented from having choice or acting with independence or agency as the adult “knows better”. In contrast to this is a newer image of the agentic child, which challenges the notion of the innocent, powerless child. Children are considered as social actors who participate in their own education and lives (James, Jenks & Prout, 1998). A curriculum for this child is co-constructed through adult-child collaboration and guiding by the adult. In light of this work, we see the importance of practitioners reflecting on their view of children. Understanding these constructs allows practitioners to challenge their own pedagogy and practice in order to provide a curriculum which encompasses a positive image of the child as a learner. Guiding reflection on the image of the child. The Better Start mentoring relationship is used to help to guide and promote reflection on practitioners’ image of the child, and support practitioners to bring their image of the child as a competent and confident learner to life in the curriculum (NCCA, 2014). The The Practice Guide (NCCA, 2014) supports reflection on the principles of Aistear (2009) and Siolta (2007), which place the child at the center of their own learning and views children as citizens with rights and as confident, competent and curious learners. It outlines reflection across seven pillars, with opportunities to reflect through a plethora of resources including 30 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD self-evaluation tools, action planning tools, tip sheets, videos, galleries and resources for sharing (NCCA, 2014). The pillar Curriculum Foundations has been specifically designed as a starting point to thinking about curriculum. Within this pillar, element two supports reflection on the image of the child and provides questions prompts and scenarios which encourage practitioners to think about their work with children (NCCA, 2014). This element provides a variety of activities A-E which are designed to support both group and self-reflection on children and their lives. Activity A (appendix A) supports practitioners to describe their view of children, reflecting that “this shapes how you approach planning for learning and development, how you listen to and involve them (or not) and how the curriculum takes shape within your setting” (NCCA, 2014, p.21). Activity B involves practitioners thinking about their own experiences as a learner, and seeing all children as competent and confident learners. It outlines a number of scenarios and supports reflection on the messages practitioners may give children either directly or indirectly, on the things they can or cannot do. Activity C is used to explore challenges in enabling children to show their competence and confidence, and supports practitioners to think about how they show their trust and belief in children as they support them to learn by being creative, trying new things, and taking risks. Activity D is designed to allow a group of colleagues to make a tangible action plan to change practice, which allows children more opportunities to show their confidence and competence, either in a room or in a whole setting. The final activity E) supports practitioners to share their image of the child with others by describing how their views become evident in their daily work. This suite of activities is designed to be carried out over a period of weeks or months with aspects of both self-reflection and group reflection. The activities are supported with a 31 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD variety of resources including tips-sheets, templates, actions plans, scenarios, photographs and videos. (NCCA, 2014, Curriculum Foundations, Element 2). It is hoped that a collective discussion of these key concepts within an early years setting can result in a shift in values and beliefs for practitioners. This conceptual shift can have a positive impact on all within the service. Developing a positive image of the child Experiences of similar reflection on practitioner’s image of the child, based on the inspiration of Reggio Emilia with practitioners in South Australia, have been described in research by Rinaldi (2013). Similar to the Practice Guide, this work provoked the construction of a positive image of the child as a competent child and a possessor of rights. This reflection inspired the following responses: “I’ve been saying that I see children as capable, but if I’m really honest I’ve really had two views of children: one for those who find learning easy and an empty view of the children who have learning difficulties. Why didn’t I see this before?” and “I will never think of children in the same way again. You have opened my eyes to their capability and potential” (Rinaldi 2013, p.20). Further research, which was carried out in the United States, by McCartney and Harris (2014) asked questions to ascertain how preservice teacher’s images of the child were challenged or affirmed through experience in international preschool settings. Opportunities were provided for the participants to reconstruct their image of the child through exposure to different school cultures and the sociocultural setting in which the schools were situated. Participants found that ‘teacher’s expectations affect (children’s) competence’ (McCartney and Harris, 2014, p. 274). Unlike the practice in adult dominated settings they had previously experienced, children’s initiative and competence was supported when they saw the children 32 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD as competent and active agents. The children were able to assume responsibility for their learning and were supported to think critically and creatively (ibid.). In addition, this research reinforced the importance of providing intentional opportunities for both critical reflection, and for reflection in action (Schon,1983) as the implicit beliefs of practitioners were deeply engrained and can be difficult to challenge. Being supported to reflect on their image of the child and with scaffolding provided, participants began to question the practices and beliefs that they held, testing them against a different model of practice. This led to teachers being able to identify their ideas about appropriate pedagogy, to challenge previously accepted practice and value the child as a confident and competent learner. These explorations outline the importance of forming a positive image of the child. These considerations are in line with international research, which has found that the most effective early childhood professionals reflect on and adopt a flexible image of children and childhood and consider the roles they play in children’s lives. Conclusion The work of the mentor within the Better Start Quality Development process supports practitioners to consider their practice and challenge assumptions through the use of reflective practice. When practitioners in an ECCE setting are supported to come together to decide on shared principles of practice this will help to develop the view of the child as competent and confident and facilitate consistent practice across the setting (NCCA, 2014). In the Better Start model practitioners are supported to reflect on their own professional role and ethical practice. Aistear and Siolta both acknowledge the role of the adult in supporting a positive image of the child and how this impacts on practice. It is the mentor’s role to 33 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD develop a relationship which effectively supports reflection to develop practitioner’s knowledge base, and enhance quality practice in the early years based on our image of the child as a competent and confident Learner (NCCA, 2009). As we have no concrete evidence of the effectiveness of this approach the purpose of this research is to evaluate whether making reflection on the image of the child central to mentoring practices for quality development in ECCE settings leads to sustainable change. The study will explore what Better Start Mentors’ do to support practitioners to reflect on their image of the child; why they it in this way and how it influences practice which promotes children’s learning within early year’s settings. The challenges to this will also be explored. 34 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 13 Chapter Three - Research Methodology This chapter presents all aspects of the research methodology and procedures used to gather data on mentors’ experiences of supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child as a learner. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of making reflection on the image of the child central to mentoring practices for quality improvement in the early years. Within this research, qualitative methods, specifically questionnaires and a semi structured focus group, were employed to explore what Better Start Mentors’ do to support practitioners to reflect on their image of the child; why they support reflection on the image of the child in this way; and how this reflection influences practice which promotes children’s learning within early years settings. These methods were also employed to explore challenges in supporting this reflection. This chapter outlines the researcher’s position and describes the research design including a brief exploration of the underlying paradigms. It also describes the participants and outlines the research methods and data analysis procedures used. Ethical considerations and limitations of the research conducted are likewise indicated. Researcher’s Position As valuable qualitative research seeks to hear all voices and perspectives (Czarniawsak, 2004, Gilgun 2005 cited in Creswell & Poth, 2018), it is important that I, as the researcher, outline my personal stance and position in this research. It is acknowledged that the writer brings biases, values and experiences to the study, as writing of this kind cannot be separated from the author. It is also important that I protect the rights, privacy and welfare of the participants in the study (Gabo Ntseane, 2013). By its nature, my relationship 35 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD with the participants within the study is ongoing and evolving. Ethical dilemmas within the researcher-participant relationship can be complex. Therefore, despite my good intentions, scrutiny within the study may inadvertently have negative impacts on participants. The inclusion of my own position and related reflections will help in revealing “the conflicts and tensions that all researchers inevitably face and learn from” (Gabo Ntseane, 2013, p. 296). I am currently employed in a mentoring and coaching role as an Early Years specialist within the Better Start Quality Development process. I hold a degree in Early Childhood Care and Education. I also hold a postgraduate qualification in both Early Education, Mentoring and Coaching. During my initial post graduate studies in early education I gained new insight into the Reggio Emilia approach and the work and principles of Loris Malaguzzi. From related readings, I endeavoured to incorporate these principles into my daily practice in my then role as an early year’s practitioner. These principles helped in reinforcing some established practice, challenged other areas of practice and allowed me to develop new practice. This resulted in developing new approaches with the potential for positive outcomes for children as well as for myself as a practitioner. On the uptake of my current role as a Mentor with Better Start, I gained familiarity with the Aistear Síolta Practice Guide, including the reflective activities on the image of the child within the pillar Curriculum Foundations. This helped me to recognise that on my own journey as a practitioner, I had been led to reflect on my image of the child through my own exploration of Malaguzzi’s work. The subsequent reconstruction of my image of the child was invaluable in developing my practice. Within my role as a mentor I have, at different stages, committed to utilising this pillar and associated activities to support reflection on the image of the child, thus endeavouring to make it central to my own mentoring practices for quality improvement in the early years. 36 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD As this research is based on an area of practice I myself engage in on a daily basis it is important to reflect on my relationship with my colleagues. The study within my own place of work, held the potential to raise issues of power or risk to both the participants and myself (Creswell & Poth, 2018). In order to be able to appropriately collect useful data it was important to manage the relationship in a manner, which addressed any difficulties in remaining objective and eliminate any potential imbalance of power. For example, by listening to the focus group recording repeatedly I was able to overcome any bias in relation to the value of the input of participants who I know well and whose professional opinions have already had an influence on my own perspectives. In this study it was important to negotiate my positionality as both an insider and an outsider (Gabo Ntseane, 2013) who on one hand works as a mentor who has familiarity with the content and practices participants are referring to, but on the other hand doing the work of a researcher and interviewer. As there is an existing relationship with participants, there was a commitment from the group to the work, and thus a trust and openness to inform discussion and question practice. It was important that I balance engagement and disengagement with participants throughout the study to allow ideas, discussions and opinions to develop without bias. I also engaged in critical self-reflection in order to understand how my own knowledge of practice could add to the research as I have the advantage of sharing a similar background and experiences as those within the study (Creswell & Poth, 2018) Research Design The theoretical framework of this study is built on an interpretivist approach acknowledging that the findings will vary according to the perspectives of the participants (Mukherji & Albon, 2010). As the social world is constantly changing, few situations are 37 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD exact replicas of others. The study therefore draws on social science theories, which shapes research and the researcher’s view. It is set within a social constructivist paradigm where the knowledge is “constructed together” (Fraser & Lewis et al., 2009. p74), and in which the “researcher looks for a complexity of views” (Creswell & Poth 2018, p 25), therefore discounting the notion of “absolute truth” (Etherington, 2019). The focus is on the process of interaction with individuals, including the context of the information, which is also shaped by the experiences of the researcher. The aim of the approach is to investigate the voice of the participants whilst also acknowledging the multiple interpretations of a single issue (Cresswell & Poth, 2018; Fraser & Lewis et al. 2009), thus applying the use of reflexivity, where the focus is on the “contexts of, and relationships between researcher and researched as shaping the creation of knowledge” (Etherington, 2019). The purpose of the study will be to inform the mentoring practice within the Better Start team. It will have the potential to inform the practice of other mentoring programmes and the development of further coaching and mentoring and opportunities for early year’s education at a local and national level. In order to add to the validity and transferability of the study it is important to gather narratives through many different forms of data. The study therefore employed a multiple methods approach using open response questionnaires and semi-structured focus group interview. From an interpretivist-constructivist perspective, Merriam and Tisdell (2016, p.259) states that triangulation remains a principle strategy to ensure validity and reliability, therefore in collecting data, the researcher intentionally planned to “make use of multiple and different methods” (Creswell, 2014, p. 251) whilst also considering that comparisons using similar methods can provide a check on the accuracy of information gathered (Denscombe, 2010). Getting more than one viewpoint in order to gain better knowledge improves accuracy and leads to a fuller picture, thus enhancing the “completeness of the findings” (ibid, p.348). 38 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD This research study was carried out using qualitative methods of data collection. Qualitative research is exploratory in nature. Its focus is on generating understanding and meaning of individual’s experiences through rich descriptions. Qualitative research is flexible, evolving and emergent in its design. It is used to answer questions with the purpose of understanding phenomena from the participant’s point of view (Reeves, 2008). Within qualitative data it is said that the researcher is the primary research instrument. Through the research design, stories were co-constructed as participants describes their lived experiences of supporting reflection on the image of the child. This included rich descriptions of participant’s values, the contexts in which experiences took place and the feelings they evoked. The interactions between the participants and the researcher, and the participants with each other was invaluable. This allowed for dialogue to explore similar and dissimilar experiences and beliefs. It supported reflection and opportunity to question beliefs or build on each other’s opinions. (Creswell, 2018, p.68). This narrative enquiry was carried out to explore the spoken and written word relating to the experiences and challenges of participants who are mentors’, supporting reflection on the image of the child within early childhood care and education settings. Participants are those who have experience relating to this particular phenomenon. Within this approach, participants provided a voice to allow the researcher to explore the educational problem presented (Creswell, 2014). Creswell & Poth (2018) state that through a collaborative approach between the research and participants the story unfolds. Through describing their experiences, participants provided a narrative, which presents their story on how an individual thinks, knows and feels, and informs us on how they makes decisions and gives insight into their lives (ibid). The stories are re-presented in ways that preserve their integrity (Etherington, 2019) and analysis (meaning making) occurs throughout the research 39 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD process rather than being a separate activity carried out after data collection (Gehart et al 2007). In addition, this study incorporates aspects of phenomenological research as it creates a descriptive account of several individuals and can be applied to the lived experiences of multiple people (Creswell, 2014). It is recognised that this is a phenomenologically focused study as it is subjective to the individual’s experience (Lester, 1999). By engaging in this study with multiple members of Better Start mentoring team, and comparing and contrasting their accounts, the researcher aims to gain a fuller understanding of what the experience of supporting reflection of their image of the child may be like. The essence is about incorporating “what” they have experienced and “how” they experience it (Creswell & Poth, 2018 p.77). Research Participants The participants were a group of 28 Early Years Specialists who work as members of the Better Start mentoring team. A purposeful sampling strategy was used as the individuals were chosen based on their role as mentors’ working specifically on quality development in early years services. This meant individuals could “purposefully inform an understanding of the research problem and central phenomenon in the study” (Creswell & Poth 2018, p 158). These individuals were also convenient to sample as it was easy to gain access and permissions for data collection. To further facilitate convenience, it was planned for the focus group to take place on a day participants were already co located in their office base for the purpose of a team meeting rather than spread across the north, east and midlands region of Ireland. 40 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Research Methods The methods used were chosen as the most appropriate and useful tools for the collection of empirical data in order to explore mentors’ experiences of supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child. It was decided that the combination of questionnaires, followed by a focus group discussion allowed the researcher to look at the topic from a variety of perspectives. The findings could be corroborated, triangulated and questioned through exploring the data produced in both Denscombe, 2010). A questionnaire was used as the first, exploratory phase of a staged approach, and was followed by a focus group to further explore the findings from the first phase (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Questionnaire Questionnaires were the initial tool used to collect empirical data within this study. A well structered questionnare containing considered questions works effectively as it can help eliminate elements of bias. As it does not involve an interviewer, the answers are in the respondent’s own words and it allows particpants adequate time to give well thought out answers. This approach was chosen to allow the reseracher to gain a clear picture of the facts, evidence and opinions about the subject matter. According to Kothari (2004), the information gathered through questionnaires can serve as the basis for formulating further discussions, as was the case in this study. The design of the questionnaire was based on the theoritical underpinnings of the litereatrue review. As it is also important not to allow the literature to limit the scope of the study, open ended questions included in the questionnaire were designed to permit a free response from participants (Kothari, 2004). Through this it was intended to allow them to respond on their beliefs, attitudes and opinions in an expansive way (Mulhern, 2007). For example, a questions which ask for a yes/no answer were followed up with the opportunity 41 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD to give examples i.e ‘do you feel that supporting reflection on the image of the chid leads to changes in practice which promote childrens learning?’ followed with ‘can you give examples of this’. A small number of quantitative questions were also included in support of a combination of both direct and indirect questions. Closed questions were used to support the categorisation of reponses and to allow some basic information to be quantified, and included elments such as ranking and semantic differential scale to rate aspects of their practice (Denscombe, 2010) . The questionnaire was piloted with two participants, following which minor adaptations to eliminate duplication of questions and clarity of content occured. As response rates for internet based surveys are generally higher, the questionnaire was conducted using SurveyMonkey. This also meant that all particpants regardless of their geographical location had equal access as participants are based nationally (Denscombe, 2010). In addition research has found that participants tend to respond more quickly, reflectively and incisively than in conventional postal questionnaires (Cohen et al, 2011). A link to the questionnaire and related information on the study was e-mailed to all participants (Appencix c). A total of 28 questionnaires with 17 questions were distributed to members of the Better Start quality mentoring team. All respondents were asked the same questions and 17 responses in total were gathered Focus Group As it is important to incorporate multiple sources of data in order to corroborate, elaborate or illuminate aspects of the research, a semi structured focus group interview with eight members of the Better Start mentoring team of which the researchers are part of was also carried out (Kothari, 2004). This focus group discussion took place to allow the researcher to gain insight into the participants opinions, feelings, emotions and experiences (Denscombe, 2010) on supporting practitioners to reflect on their image of the child as a 42 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD learner. The focus group lasted one hour and the discussion was based on the responses of the initial questionnaires. The value of this was to gain more information and greater depth on topics identified, whilst also allowing flexibility to explore new topics. The use of a focus group was justified as Kane and O’Reilly De Brun (2001) outline that the major interaction is among members of the group working through an idea, issue or problem that the researcher has selected. Within a focus group the researcher acts as a facilitator and it is the “group interaction rather than the answer to questions that provide the insight” (Kane & O’Reilly De Brun, 2001, p.273). The researcher shares experience of mentoring with the participants, therefore the focus group adresses dynamics which help to iliminate subtle persuasive questions, responses or explanations (creswell & Poth, 2018). A semi-structured method was employed, using open-ended questions. Denscombes “checklist for the use of interviews” (Denscombe, 2010) was utilised to support the appropriate use of this method. This included consideration on, for example: the use of prompts, probes and checks to gain insight; relveant fieldnotes being taken and the recording equipment being used. Following analysis of the initial questionnaires distributed, a list of issues to be addressed, general points of interest to explore and questions to be answered were drawn up. In leading the discussion, by way of introduction, the aim of the research and the researchers interest in the topic was outlined. Some small discussion points pertaining to the results of the questionnaire were outlined as “stimulus material” (Denscombe, 2010) so that the initial discussion could relate to concrete rather than abstract ideas. As was already established, the agenda of the focus group was outlined and participants were encouraged to critically reflect on what is working or not within current practice. Knowing the group, I was confident that critical reflection is a common and valued practice. I also had to be aware of my own objectivity in order to investigate the topic 43 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD critically as a researchers. I had to be adaptable in my approach, switching roles to ensure I was asking the correct questions from an outsider perspective to confirm particular information on generally accepted practice within the team. For example clarifying with participants who referred to staff team meetings, that these take place after practitioners work hours as is my own experience as a mentor. According to Rubin & Rubin (2011) probing questions perform three main functions. To specify the level of depth the interviewer would like; signal to the interviewee that you want longer more detailed answers and they indicate that the interviewer is listeing attentively. Through allowing myself the flexibility to present questions when they were most meaningful rather than a structured agenda, interviewees were encouraged to develop ideas and elaborate on points of interest. This meant that time and space was allowed for participants to expand and extend discussion and incorporate new ideas, whilst the researcher engaged in ‘active listening’. Allowing particpants the freedom to talk whilst bearing in mind the broader aims of the study was essential as the value of a focus group is to “explore voices and experiences” (Silverman, 2008). Hess outlines five advantages of using focus groups (1968, cited in Clough and Nutbrown, 2002, p. 79), all of which apply to the focus group: (1) Synergism (a wider bank of data emerges through group interaction) (2) Snowballing (following the comments of one participant, a chain reaction of other statements follow) (3) Stimulation (the group discussion creates enthusiasm on a topic.) (4) Security (the existence of the group provides a comfort to each and encourages open responses (5) Spontaneity (responses are more spontaneous and honest as participants are not required to answer every question). The focus group was recorded and transcribed on completion, for the further purpose of data analysis. 44 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Data analysis According to Vasconcelos (2019), a reflexive researcher does not simply report facts but actively constructs interpretations of their experiences in the field, and then questions how those interpretations came about. The aim following data collection is for the reseacher to be able to report their interpretations as they have evolved from the story, by describing, comparing, and relating characteristics of the responses to one another, and demonstrating that certain features exist in certain categories (Bell, 2005). The analytic process should be relaxed, flexible and driven by insight gained through interactions with data rather than being overly structured. (Corbin & Strauss 2008, p.12 ). Through the process of qualitative data analysis, themes are created as responses are categorised and interpreted for similarities, differences, groupings, and items of significance. Responses are coded and recorded and interpretations presented as relevant findings (Kothari, 2004). Coding is used to identify relationships, patterns or similartities to try to understand why things happen. Within this study, for the purpose of data analysis, coding was carried out. This is the process of examining the data, and assigning codes or labels to words, phrases, sentences or pargraphs in transcripts and texts. This involved reading across the responses and transcript to find similarlities and differences in relation to what participants have discussed and described in relation to the things they do to support reflection on the image of the child. Cope (2010) defines coding as “a process of identifying and organizing themes in qualitatieve data”. Coding allows us to make sense of our data by evaluating and organising it, it allows us to handle the large volume of data gathered and reduce it into key themes (ibid). The process of open coding was applied, and during the intitial coding stage the text was read through for broad code names, which relate to similarity or relationship within the text. This allowed the researcher to focus on key data and areas of priority. The reserach 45 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD questions also helped in identifying (Auerbach & Silverstein). This process was followed by, line by line coding, which is a detailed process of examining the data collected and manually assigning a code or label word for similar thoughts, ideas, descriptions or behaviours etc. that capture the essence of the text. Following line by line coding the text was analalysed and sorted into categaories. Categories which are consistent throughout the text and transcripts were determined as overarching themes of the data, and colour coded to support further clarity (Cope, 2010; Auerbach and Silverstein, 2003) . Once the themes were determined, meaningful perspectives and narratives from the data became evident. This included a variety of perspetives and stories based on themes and subthemes of the coded data. A coding matrix which included quotes and text was developed under each theme to support analysis and also as a means to support the integrity of the process. A qualitative coding matrix enables a systematic way of achieving the discrimination between data sources and various interpretations of the different parties’ (Graham, 2019, p. 253 ). Vasconcelos (2019) outlines the importance of researching with integrity stating that participants of an interpretivist study need to be respected, specifically at the analysis stage to ensure that findings are expressed respectfully and truthfully. Ethical Considerations There are many ethical issues that must be taken into consideration when carrying out research, particularly in the field of education. The study followed all ethical procedures and requirements of the Master of Education (Early Education) programme in Marino Institute of Education, and was approved on application by the ethics committee. The research methodology was designed in a way, which protects the interests of the participants. 46 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD There was no deception involved and the study complies with the law. All information will remain confidential and the personal identities of participants will not be disclosed. As participants are known to the researcher, assurances were given that participation is voluntary, and participation could cease at their will, up until publication date (Cohen, Mannion & Morrision, 2011; Creswell & Poth, 2018; Denscombe, 2010). As the sample group is made up of work colleagues and practitioners with whom the researcher has a mentoring relationship established, existing knowledge and relationships may interfere with the information gathered and presented. The researcher’s aim was to limit this by ensuring that the study was transparent by concentrating exclusively on the data gathered (ibid) and outlining my own positionality. Within the research, I have the obligation to colleagues as study participants to ensure rights such as privacy and welfare are protected. In practical terms, this meant providing clear information on how the study was to be carried out as well as the purpose and dissemination of findings and recommendations. General consent was obtained to carry out the focus group on the day of a team meeting, followed by individual invites for participants to partake, and the opportunity to provide individual consent via email prior to the event. As the participants are identifiable as a group delivering a national programme, any further identifying information on individuals could seriously compromise ethical efforts. It was of utmost importance to ensure vigilance in relation to anonymity. In addition, best practice advocates for care of participants by engaging in acts of reciprocity (Gabo Ntseane, 2013), therefore, the ongoing opportunities taken by myself to engage in similar research, studies and reflective activities at the request of colleagues endorses this practice. 47 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Limitations This section identifies the potential weaknesses and scope of the study. The limitations include power dynamics throughout the process as the participants and researcher are known to one another. This is also relevant specifically in relation to the focus group. As these are inherently social, there is a complex social context within this kind of group interview (Marshall and Rossman, 2006). A focus group can be influenced by individuals and encompass an element of “group think” (Hart, 2005). Also, time can be lost while dead- end or irrelevant issues are discussed (Marshall and Rossman, 2006). This was the experience for a part of the focus group in this study, where the researcher’s role as a moderator to keep the group on topic was needed. The outline of the study is to investigate the voices of the participants. Due to the nature of data analysis and the active interpretation of the researcher it is not possible to hear all of the voices within the study (Clough & Nutbrown, 2002) . A further limitation which relates to data collection is a lack of field text, such as journals, pictures or further information to back up the narratives collected within the study (Creswell, 2014). For example, completed activities on the Image of the Child from the Aistear Síolta Practice Guide, or photographs of accessible environments to illustrate changes in practice, which may support children’s learning within a setting may have been useful for further validity. In addition should time and the scope of the study have allowed, the perspectives of practitioners as mentees being supported to reflect on their image of the child would have enhanced triangulation, validity and added a richness of information to the study. 48 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Conclusion This Chapter has looked at the principle research tools that were used in conducting this study. A qualitative approach was considered most suitable based on the research and sample size. A narrative inquiry, carried out through the use of questionnaires and a focus group, and based on participants’ experiences of supporting reflection on the image of the child took place. The research tools were described and the approach to data analysis including coding was outlined in detail. The ethical considerations and limitations of the study have also been described. The methodology and procedures utilised were designed to explore how mentors’ support practitioners to reflect on their image of the child. Based on descriptions, which accurately conveys participants’ experiences, this design will inform the researcher’s interpretation in order to reach an understanding how this happens. The following chapter will outline this interpretation through exploring the key findings. 49 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD 14 Chapter 4 - Research Findings This chapter organises and reports the main research findings from this study. These present the quantitative and qualitative findings as connected to the research questions. Following thorough data analysis including coding and categorization of both data sources, overarching themes and supporting themes have been determined and herein presented. Table 1 shows a profile of the research participants. Study participants who completed questionnaires and engaged in the focus group are denoted by the acronyms QP (1-17) and FP (1-8) throughout. Participant Profile Questionnaires were completed by seventeen participants, and eight participants took part in a focus group discussion. A profile of the participants is provided in Table 1. below. Total Number of Participants 17 Gender 100% Female 0% Male Highest Level of Qualification in Early Years Education Bachelor Degree 29.4% 50 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Post-Graduate Diploma Masters Degree 29.4% 41.2% Years’ experience working with Better Start 0-1 Year 2-3 Years 4-5 Years 5+ Years 05.9% 29.4% 64.7% 00.0% Years’ experience working in coaching and mentoring 0-1 Year 2-3 Years 4-5 Years 5+ Years 00.0% 29.4% 64.7% 05.9% Mentoring & Coaching Qualification (Post-Graduate) Yes 94.1% No 5.9% 51 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Table 1 - Profile of Participants The participant profile indicates that all participants are qualified to level eight or nine on the National Framework of Qualifications, with 70% qualified to level nine. This suggests a depth of knowledge in early childhood education within the team. The majority of participants have worked Better Start program since its establishment in 2015. Despite all except one mentor holding a post-graduate diploma in mentoring and coaching, the findings do not indicate a depth of mentoring experience. Figure 1. shows the limited number of years’ experience within the team, indicating that individuals involvement in mentoring and coaching expands only the duration of their work within Better Start. This testifies to the recent nature of mentoring approaches within the sector. This combined with limited training opportunities for practitioners to build their knowledge of Aistear and Síolta, points to potential challenge for mentors’ working in a quality development process which is underpinned by reflection on the image of the child. Mentoring Experience 52 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Figure 1. shows the number of years experience in mentoring and coaching compared with the number of years mentors’ have worked with Better Start. Mentors’ understanding of the image of the child In describing mentors’ own understanding of the image of the child, all participants stated their image of the child relates to their view of children and how they learn, for example, ‘in simple terms it is how we view children’ (QP14), ‘it is our default mode for thinking about children’ (QP10). The importance of having a positive image of children was noted, and almost half of the participants referred to viewing the child as a competent and confident learner. The work of Fisher (2013) describes children as natural and successful learners, an understanding engrained in Aistear (NCCA, 2009), the purpose of which is “to provide challenging and enjoyable experiences so that all children can grow and develop as competent and confident learners” (NCCA, 2014, p.21). Participants believe that a person’s view of children impacts the curriculum they provide to support children’s learning. This is also inferred through statements such as, ‘the image of the child is where teaching should begin’ (QP17). Within the Reggio Emilia approach children are described as “powerful active and competent protagonists in their own growth” (Edwards, 2012, p. 148). This phrase is used by QP8 who describes the child as a ‘Protagonist of his/her own learning, guided by caring and responsible adults’. In addition one Síolta research digest (2007) states that a “supportive climate where collaboration between adults and children is encouraged is essential for learning” (CECDE, 2007, P.5). Participants also indicated that the image of the child is related to our values and beliefs for children, including ‘the position they hold in society’ (QP14) linking this view to using a ‘rights based perspective’ (FP5). This relates to a child’s right to participation “where the child is seen to have agency and power within her/his own life” (CECDE, 2007, p2). 53 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD How children view themselves is also important. Rinaldi states that adults must not just think about children as being strong and competent, but must act in such a way that children come to share that image and believe that of themselves (Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 2012). Participant QP9’s view encompasses these concepts, saying the image of the child ‘has important implications on the curriculum, as through this, messages are sent to the children regarding how we view them, which also influences how they view themselves’ (QP9). Converse to these findings one participant out of 17 questionnaire responses, defined the image of the child as a ‘reflective experience’ (QP7) and referred to it as a group activity outlined in the Aistear Síolta Practice Guide. This infers a limited knowledge of the rights based values underpinning the image of the child. However, QP7 also describes the benefits of this reflection on children’s learning. We can surmise that the question was interpreted as relating specifically to activities from the Practice Guide. Within the Practice Guide specific activities on the image of the child are presented within the pillar Curriculum Foundations. As described in the literature review, these activities are designed as a starting point to thinking about curriculum. The image of the child guides the work of the mentor When asked, 94% of participants responded that the image of the child guides their work as a mentor, with a number proclaiming ‘very much so’, (QP14) ‘yes, completely’ (QP15) and ‘absolutely’ (QP11). Some stated that this happens ‘subliminally’ and a less definitive ‘I think so’ (QP12). Initial responses appeared to focus on the use of the image of the child activities. These were outlined as being useful for practitioners to: reflect on how they view children; to think about their practice; to reflect as a team (QP1: QP2: QP7), and 54 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD particularly at the beginning of the mentoring process. The Practice Guide recommends carrying out these activities as part of the pillar Curriculum Foundations. The element on the Image of the Child comes together with three other elements; Developing a Curriculum Statement; Professional Practice and Themes of Aistear to form the pillar: Curriculum Foundations. It is recommended that a service completes work on Curriculum Foundations firstly, as these are “an important starting point when thinking about curriculum” (NCCA, 2014, p17). Activity A of these five reflective experiences encourages practitioners to think of words to describe their view of children. The majority of participants describe carrying out this activity with a group. Many identified this activity as a good starting point, ‘it requires some self-assessment and reflection’ (QP16), ‘It is a very good place to start with a mentee as you can learn a lot from their image of the child’ (QP11). As a practitioner’s image of the child has important implications for the curriculum they provide for children, it lays the foundation for the development of quality in supporting how children learn. Additionally Clutterbuck (2014) describes the use of dialogue and discussion as a rapport building strategy. This activity encompasses a “this is me this is you” kind of approach and may explain its success at the start of the mentoring process (2014, p.41). Though participants referred value of the image of the child activities, it is also acknowledged that they are not the only effective way to support reflection on the image of the child. On deeper analysis of both data samples, we find evidence of mentors’ feeling that the image of the child is embedded throughout their role. In describing this one participant QP16 states, The image of the child guides my work. It is informed by my beliefs, values and principals. It underpins all aspects of my work. It is a sort of moral compass that guides all the decisions and judgments I make in my work. 55 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD In addition to guiding mentors’ beliefs, the image of the child is embedded in the mentors’ every day practice. Participants describe practical elements which emphasise this; I think that no matter what we do we are touching on the image of the child and I know if we aren’t using these (activities)…the minute we start talking about environments, interactions, play and everything we do, it’s making them think about putting the child at the centre… you are always bringing it back to that image of the child. (QP2). These findings indicate that mentors’ feel good practice and the development of an effective curriculum for young children emerges from the image of the child. The mentors’ work is informed by the belief that quality practice arises through the mentoring process which is underpinned by a positive image of children. From the data, we find that 84% of participants feel the image of the child is embedded in their work. Figure. 2 identifies how the image of the child guides participant’s work which happens through the use of activities, embedded in their practice or a combination of both. This highlights flexibility in how mentors’ approach their work on the image of the child with practitioners. Despite these statistics it was also stated that ‘on reflection, I feel that I have not spent enough time supporting educators’ image of the child in practice’ (QP2). This may identify a gap in training for the Better Start mentoring team, or alternatively indicates limited experience of the positive impact of working with services to support this reflection. This demonstrates the importance of mentors’ refining their own mentoring practice. 56 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Figure 2. Analysis the ways in which the image of the child guides mentors’ work The use of activities from the Aistear Síolta Practice Guide. Figure 3. outlines the frequency with which mentors’ use Activities A-E from the The Practice Guide. Further interpretation finds that mentors’ find value in all the activities, but some are used more frequently. According to the data 65% of participants use activity A: Describing your view of children most frequently. Participants described using it as a foundation for developing a curriculum statement with a service. Developing a written curriculum statement informs long term planning. It outlines an approach to curriculum planning that can be shared with others such as parents (NCCA 2014). Mentors’ state that this is an efficient way to overcome the challenge of time constraints. ‘I find I don’t get enough time to do them all, team meetings are often used for curriculum statements and work on planning rather than the other activities though I could see the benefit of them’ (QP2). The value of combining two major elements of curriculum development due to limited time, leads to a questioning of the effectiveness of activities used in this way. This indicates the challenge for mentors’ in relation to supporting practitioner’s image of the child, particularly as mentors’ indicate value of this reflection in supporting best practice. 57 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD Figure 3. Frequency of use of activities Activity D: Bringing the Image of the Child to Life in the Curriculum, is the second most frequently used by 35% of participants. Following questions and prompts for reflection, Activity D literally asks practitioners to name ‘three things we will do next week to help children be more confident and competent’. QP5 states that ‘I will often leave activity D with a service to complete within their teams, and this would create content for goal setting’. This activity creates a practical approach to developing a quality curriculum and can inform identifiable actions for practitioners to work on. One respondent identified that she doubts the value in these activities; however, also questioning if this is related to a ‘wish for “proof” that I make a difference with a more physical change?” (QP10). From this it is suggested that activities can form an identifiable goal may be more effective for practitioners, leaving them more desirable for mentors’ use. The value of activities is examined by the mentors’ with some participants stating, ‘I use them often as I find them useful’ (QP1) and ‘I think the activities are important… I feel they are interlinked and can be carried out together’ (QP17). Alternatively QP6 says 58 MENTORS’ EXPERIENCES OF SUPPORTING REFLECTION ON THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD ‘sometimes I do not use the activities at all… I incorporate the image of the child more informally’ (QP6). Their significance is questioned for example by FP1 who claims, ‘I think it needs to be a bit deeper than that… the activity is only on the face of it’. It is